unique features of educational organization

Partnerships between researchers and practitioners have become attractive in recent years because the site of much education research has shifted from the laboratory to schools and classrooms (Shulman, 1997). These schools vary enormously, from individual Montessori schools, Christian academies, and elite private schools to citywide systems of Catholic parochial schools. The influential role of context in many social and behavioral research inquiries is a fundamental aspect of studying humans. In contrast, schools systems with large, internally heterogeneous higher education sectors, such as in the United States, foster weaker class consciousness (Brint 1998). In sum, the degree of precision associated with current social science findings tends to be lower than that in the physical and life sciences. A second implication is that advances in education research depend in no small part on advances in related disciplines and fields. This dynamic creates a turbulent environment for research. However bureaucratic schools are, they are also professional organizations because teachers make up such a large portion of the labor force and administrators are invariably former teachers. Meanwhile, about 2,000 colleges are private, owned either by religious groups, profit-making corporations, or nonsectarian, non-profit-making boards. In addition, national professional associations of educators and regional nongovernmental accrediting agencies provide common definitions across states and localities of what constitutes good educational practice. As many recent critics have noted, the variety of curricular goals and educational and social purposes served by U.S. secondary schools blurs their academic mission. The most effective school cultures support great teaching and learning. Ideally, relationships generate a bidirectional flow to the work, with the research informing practice while craft knowledge and practical wisdom enrich the research. New York City also has a variety of vocational schools. Once established, ideological control can be extremely powerful and durable. Cusick, Philip 1983 The Egalitarian Ideal and the American High School. endstream endobj 66 0 obj <> endobj 67 0 obj <> endobj 68 0 obj <>stream Not a MyNAP member yet? 11 No. Retrieved February 22, 2023 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/educational-organization. Nave uses and expectations of research that do not recognize such contextual differences can lead to simplistic, uninformed, and narrow interpretations of research and indiscriminate applications. Refer to each styles convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates. If many middle-class students desert a school district, it loses state funding, which is largely enrollment-driven. Organization: Structure and Culture. The strong local role in educational governance in the U.S. system makes it more likely that the demands of non-college-goers will be listened to. Bidwell, Charles 1965 "The School as a Formal Organization." AmericanJournal of Education 98 (February):97113. Moreover, textbook writers and publishers, who provide instructional material for schools nationwide, influence what is taught and often how it is taught by marketing the same instructional materials nationwide (Apple 1986). New York: Pergamon. Reward It. Real estate values are strongly affected by perceptions of the quality of local schools, and these perceptions are in turn shaped by how many middle-class and white students attend a school. Since students progress through twelve or more grades in dif ferent schools and at different levels, . This chapter provides a flavor for the particular character of scientific inquiry in education. Manno, Bruce V., Chester E. Finn, Jr., Louann Bierlein, and Gregg Vanourek 1998 "Charter Schools: Accomplishments and Dilemmas." Our discussion of diversity above is illustrative: to what extent, for example, is it possible to generalize results of research on suburban middle-class children of Western European descent to inner-city, low-income, limited-English students from Central America or Southeast Asia? To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter. Meyer, John W., Francisco Ramirez, and Yasmin N. Soysal 1992 "World Expansion of Mass Education, 18701980." . According to data collected by the U.S. Census Bureau, 16 percent of the population changed households between March 1999 and March 2000 (Schacter, 2001). But in industrialized societies such as the United States, formal education rivals, if not exceeds, nonformal and informal education in importance and the use of society's resources. MyNAP members SAVE 10% off online. The federal government, meanwhile, only contributes about 7 percent of K12 public school revenues, mostly in the form of categorical aid (discussed below under "Market Competition"). Individuals who leave school prior to high school graduation can be defined as school dropouts. Encyclopedias almanacs transcripts and maps. Board of Education of the City of New York 1997 Directory of the Public High Schools, 19971998. Finally, the city boasts four very well-known college preparatory schools, such as the Bronx High School of Science, that grant entry solely on the basis of an examination or audition (Board of Education of the City of New York 1997). Herman, Edward S., and Noam Chomsky 1988 Manufacturing Consent. Instead, schooling in the United States is a state and local responsibility. "Educational Organization Germany, meanwhile, has a very different school system. Consequently, our secondary education system is less decisive than in most other countries, as "second-chance" opportunities abound. 1994). and Ed.D (Harvard). Metz, Mary Haywood 1978 Classrooms and Corridors. Identifying the unique educational characteristics of a medium Most teachers and instructors would put the effectiveness of a medium for teaching and learning as the first criterion. , Cynthia Grutzick, Sibyll Carnochan, Julie Slayton, and Ash Vasudeva 1999 "Underlying Policy Assumptions of Charter School Reform: The Multiple Meanings of a Movement." Uses of theory also tend to distinguish work in the social and physical sciences. endstream endobj startxref concerns. These funds will flow to a school only if it successfully competes with other schools to demonstrate that it is willing and able to engage in actions that the funder wishes to encourage. In addition, many educational organizations, such as the National School Climate Center . These differences in student careers fundamentally shape educational outcomes. And unlike the other forms of power, it is particularly dependent on the willing acquiescence of those who would be influenced (Weiss 1990). In addition, some colleges serve distinct student populations; for example, nearly 200 colleges are single-sex and nearly 100 are all-black (U.S. National Center for Education Statistics 1997). The non-completion of the work of one person affects the work of everybody. Characteristics of the management system include: internal and external constraints; flat hierarchy; bases of authority; conflicting role demands; lack of colleague control; bureaucratic rules; size of staff; feminization; and management selfimage. Hence, school districts compete to hire and retain teachers, particularly if they are in fields such as math and science, where qualified teachers are scarce. National and international school reform initiatives i, Educational Institutions and Philosophies, Traditional and Modern, Educational Foundation for Women in Accounting, Educational Broadcasting, Federal Support, Education: Primary Public EducationNational Schools from 1831, Education: Primary Private Education"Hedge Schools" and Other Schools, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/educational-organization. unique to educational organizations follow: 1. Business also shapes schools through market control. The members' actions are largely governed by formal rules and a norm of professionalism (impersonality). Historically, education reform seems to be the norm, not the novelty, in U.S. education, dating back at least to the nineteenth century (Tyack and Cuban, 1995). While the U.S. school system is much less differentiated than is typical abroad, U.S. secondary schooling is by no means entirely undifferentiated. In nonindustrialized societies, informal education dominates, with formal and nonformal education only marginally present. So far, in our discussion of control we have focused on political authority, whether exercised by national, state, or local governments or the citizens that elect them. Student selection occurs at age ten, when students are divided between academic high school (Gymnasium) and two types of vocational secondary schooling (Realschule and Hauptschule). A culture of inclusiveness is rooted in respect . The need for care and oversight when studying vulnerable populations like children sometimes entails justifiable compromises in the conduct of scientific study and the progress of the scientific enterprise more generally. 1, pp. 1990; Kerchner et al. Encyclopedia of Sociology. These features sharpen the conception of scientific research quality we develop in Chapter 3. In order to retain students, particularly middle-class white ones, school districts adopt a variety of expedients. The ubiquity of the modern mass media and the fact that they are now held in relatively few hands allow them to widely and deeply shape many of our beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors (Bagdikian 1990; Herman and Chomsky 1988). In fact, business's influence based on its role as future employer of students has been institutionalized in the form of a myriad of business/school or school-to-work "compacts" or "partnerships" in which formal links are established and schools receive resources and job placements in return for greater responsiveness to business opinions about the desirable content of education (Gelberg 1997; Van Horn 1995). They are also less differentiated internally, in that all students are exposed to essentially the same subject matter by their "home room" teacher. and contribute knowledge about it. A lack of resources has tended generally to force a lower level of educational provision (Brint 1998). They include demand for mass character of creative competences acquisition, determining focus of teaching on individualization, recognition of high value of talent, organization of lifetime education. Students are quite likely to experience different curricula, different teaching methods, and different standards for performance depending on the particular classroom, school or university, district, and state. All rights reserved. We elaborate how the guiding principles and features of education are united within a variety of study designs in the next chapter, where we discuss, and provide examples of, how education researchers approach particular types of inquiries. Airasian, Peter W. 1987 "State Mandated Testing and Educational Reform: Context and Consequences." For example, to better understand the knowledge that teachers need to teach third grade mathematics effectively, researchers have grounded their work in concrete examples from teaching practice (e.g., samples of student work solving mathematical problems). the social sciences. 1. instances of missing data because, for example, parents have the interests of their individual child in mind and may have priorities and needs that conflict with those of the research process. Also, because of the unique complexity of the teacherstudent relationship, teachers are less able to deliver consistent results than members of professions such as medicine and engineering. Beyond these commonalities, charter schools are very diverse in size, mission, student composition, and sponsorship. By contrast, many (though not all) charter schools in Colorado were founded by well-to-do parents who wanted rigorous academic programs for their children. Implementation system features are: organization of small symmetric subunits; organizational implications of goal conflict; compulsory attendance of clients; cognitive vs. emotive functions; resulting tensions and conflicts; subcultures; clients' vulnerability; differential treatment of clients; obstacles to output measurement; and implication of measurement difficulties. In this chapter, we describe how our principles of science translate in the study of educationa rich tapestry of teaching, learning, and schooling. Spanning a 2,400 mile length of the Pacific coast, Peru constitutes the third-largest country in South America at 1,285,216 squa, School Students and their parents exert market power not only over schools overall but also over the classrooms within them. Register for a free account to start saving and receiving special member only perks. 22 Feb. 2023 . And all are influenced by federal education policy. Educational organizations pay more attention to human (stakeholders). What schools do to secure the aid may bear little resemblance to how the aid is actually used. These partnerships are not always easily formed, and often take long periods of time to establish. While U.S. comprehensive schooling may have been successful in its aim of social integration, its diffuse character has also been widely criticized. Many voucher studies (Witte, 2000; Peterson, 1998; Rouse, 1997; Peterson, Howell, and Greene, 1999; Myers, Peterson, Mayer, Chou, and Howell, 2000; Peterson, Myers, and Howell, 1999)some designed as randomized trials and some notface challenges because significant percentages of families did not return the year after baseline data were collected, did not fill out all the questionnaire items, or did not complete the standardized tests. In addition, there were some 6,300 noncollegiate postsecondary institutions enrolling 850,000 students (U.S. National Center for Education Statistics 1997). Scientific education research, whether it is aimed primarily at uncovering new knowledge or meeting the dual goals of generating knowledge and informing practice, is influenced by the unique configuration of characteristic features of the educational enterprise. 1998). 1. New Leaders Council. In James G. March, ed., Handbook of Organizations. Characteristics of educational management 5.1 characteristics of educational management. New York: Routledge, Chapman and Hall. Ethical issues also have implications for data collection. Boston: Routledge and Chapman Hall. Engaging in this kind of research, of course, depends on the willingness of school-based practitioners to participate and the establishment of relationships to facilitate it. 1996 "Opportunity to Learn Standards: A Sociological Critique." "Comprehensive" institutions, numbering about 420, make up the second category. The challenge for the diverse field of education is to integrate theories and empirical findings across domains and methods. These include: diffuse and intangible goals; value sensitivity; high cost and external dominance; client service and client dependence; obstacles to output measurements; professionalization and feminization. In this situation, the comparative effect of a new intervention will rarely be large when compared with the standard practice. These groups have strongly criticized teacher unionism and various curricular and pedagogical innovations advocated by teacher professional associations at the national, state, and local levels. Clark, Burton R. 1985 "The High School and the University: What Went Wrong in America" (2 parts). Since about 1970, most urban school systems have introduced a wide variety of programs in order to meet demands for more choice, retain middle-class white students, and better motivate students (Dougherty and Sostre 1992). 82 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<73D93B1446426F4486D3CAD8CA01DB72><43456FABDE7D654C87AA592336A53EF8>]/Index[65 35]/Info 64 0 R/Length 88/Prev 173434/Root 66 0 R/Size 100/Type/XRef/W[1 2 1]>>stream For example: "All students have the potential to succeed," or "Teaching is a team sport." Boston: Houghton Mifflin. In addition to different tracks, most U.S. urban school districts maintain specialized vocational and academic secondary schools. As an institution, its clientele frequently move, for example, from one school or college to another. Because of this, many current educational reformssuch as school-to-work partnerships between schools and employersare directed toward enhancing the connection between secondary school curricula and labor market opportunities. Gelberg, Denise 1997 The "Business" of Reforming American Schools. . Every school has a unique organizational culture. You may be able to access this content by logging in via your Emerald profile. Gallup's research finds that there are three requirements that must be present in each of the strategies. hVnF~ErVlR 1{. Local, state, and federal politicians, teacher unions, special interest groups, higher education faculty, and other interested citizens who have a stake in education are often moving in different directions and driven by different sets of incentives. In Philip G. Altbach, Robert F. Arnove, and Gail P. Kelly, eds., Comparative Education. The above mentioned features put forward certain requirements to the results of education. But even when we control for these factors, we still find enormous differences among societies in the structure of their school systems. Enrollment Reporting Services Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book. With the rapid growth of teacher unions since the early 1960s, teachers have been able to secure considerably higher salaries and greater voice in how schools run than they had before (Campbell et al. Market Competition. Economically less developed countries (LDCs) vary greatly as well in the size and structure of their school systems. Students and their parents exercise market control over schools through their decisions about which schools to attend (Spicer and Hill 1990; Weiss 1990). Differences in the phenomena typically under investigation do distinguish the research conducted by physical and social scientists. But for most college graduates, the connection between their college major and their work careers is tenuous at best. Berkeley: University of California Press. However, through the federal courts, the federal government has had a profound effect on school policies involving the treatment of pupils, particularly women, racial and linguistic minorities, and the handicapped. First, since several disciplinary perspectives focus on different parts of the system, there are many legitimate research frameworks and methods (Howe and Eisenhart, 1990). State governors, legislatures, and boards of education control the schools through state funding (which amounts to nearly half of all public school revenues) and through laws specifying minimum curriculum and graduation requirements, the minimum length of the school day and year, required facilities, standards for teacher education and certification, standards for school plant, school district lines, and so forth (Campbell et al.

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